“In your opinion, how were the poems of Samuel Taylor Coleridge shaped by the Scientific, philosophic, religious and economic paradigms of the 18th and 19th centuries?”
The Romantic movement of the 18th and 19th centuries bore a powerful shift in the nature of artistic expression, as the concepts of imagination, idealism, nature, emotion and individualism began to permeate artistic works. The poems of Samuel Taylor Coleridge exemplify the ways in which the Romantics sought to express the scientific, philosophic, religious and economic paradigms of this dramatic movement within their writing. . His poems ‘Frost at Midnight’ (1798) and ‘Kubla Khan’ (1816) are ideal examples of this tumultuous yet richly creative period, each displaying Coleridge’s emotive and eloquent style of writing. ‘Frost at Midnight’ outlines a period of pensive reflection for Coleridge, as he daydreams in solitude one evening with his young son by his side. ‘Kubla Khan’ is less peaceful in its content, describing a beautiful kingdom in a mystical land where nature is both a nurturing and violent force. Thus, both of these poems, crafted by the hand of a first generation Romantic, are ideal for understanding and appreciating the revolutionary beliefs of the Romantic Movement.
Alternative spirituality and Romantic philosophy are expressed within Coleridge’s deeply reflective poem ‘Frost at Midnight’, portraying the contrast between religious and philosophic values of Romanticism and the Enlightenment. During the 18th and 19th centuries, within the rising Methodist church’s brand of conservative Protestantism and the state’s Church of England, worship was considered a communal affair. ‘Frost at Midnight’ contrasts with this attitude by presenting Coleridge’s individualistic alternative spirituality, a notion that was typically Romantic. This is reflected by Coleridge’s “solitude, which suits abstruser musings,” which is reminiscent of the Transcendentalist values of American writer Ralph Waldo Emerson in developing individual spirituality outside of institutional frameworks. Coleridge’s alternative spirituality is further communicated through the personification of the ember, an “idling Spirit,” which is aligned with a preternatural “fluttering stranger” who takes on a godlike dimension within the poem. This is Coleridge renouncing the worship of the “great city” in favour of an almost pagan spirituality grounded within nature. These examples demonstrate how Coleridge’s poetry has been shaped by the Romantic rejection of mainstream religion in the 18th and 19th centuries. ‘Frost at Midnight’ also aligns with the key philosophic thinkers of 18th century Romanticism, as is portrayed by the poem’s examination of the role of imagination and the impact of institution upon the self. Coleridge’s dreaming “with unclosed lids” enables him to perceive “things to come.” This reveals underlying elements of Immanuel Kant’s philosophy of Idealism, which suggested that imagination fundamentally shapes reality. Furthermore, Coleridge rejects the influence of institutionalised education, as is portrayed by the symbolic association of his school with a prison- “I gazed upon the bars.” This feature reflects the philosophy of the French thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was considered to be the philosophical father of the Romantic Movement and who famously stated “man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.” Therefore, ‘Frost at Midnight’ has clearly been shaped to communicate Coleridge’s struggle with mainstream religion and the philosophic paradigms of his Romantic forefathers.
Furthermore, the supposed wisdom of scientific rationalism is rejected by Coleridge in ‘Frost at Midnight’ as he criticises the scientific paradigms of the Enlightenment era. Through the symbolic portrayal of childhood innocence being corrupted by formal education, Coleridge associates the mindset of Enlightenment intellectuals with blind belief, “With most believing mind”, creating a sense of limited perspective within the mindset of scientific reason. This is particularly critical of the teachings of scientist Isaac Newton, who sought to perfect human understanding of the world. Coleridge goes on to posit nature as the source of true wisdom as opposed to science. This is portrayed by his celebration that his child should “learn far other lore” within the natural domain of the “Great Universal Teacher.” These examples highlight how the poem has been shaped by the Romantic’s vehement opposition to scientific paradigms of the era. The poem also conveys a sense of the dismal economic situation of the 18th and 19th centuries. Furthermore, Coleridge’s portrayal of his agrarian “populous village” contrasts with his dismissive attitude towards the “great city.” His current home is idealised, as is shown by its exaggerated representation as the land from which “God utters.” Yet, the industrial world is “dim,” and absent of all beauty save for the stars, a common feature of Romantic poetry that reflects the struggle against the Industrial Revolution in which the economy was the major public concern. As such, ‘Frost at Midnight’ has been sculpted around Coleridge’s antagonism towards the gloomy economic situation of the 18th and 19th centuries.
The Romantic perspective of the hierarchy and self-interested mindset of the lassiez faire economy is reflected within Coleridge’s second poem, the mystical and exotic ‘Kubla Khan’. The devaluing of the working class and the perceived loss of the individual was a key feature of the Industrial Revolution’s ‘progressive’ working environment. However, Coleridge’s portrayal of the working class is radically different to this. The Abyssinian maid is similar to Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s noble savage in her connection with a simpler lifestyle and Coleridge bows to her superior creative ability, “Could I revive within me her symphony and song.” This conveys the longing typical of the early Romantics for an agrarian community as opposed to the rising prominence of urban environments during the Industrial Revolution. Furthermore, Kubla’s “stately pleasure-dome” is accompanied by an image of “walls and towers girdled round.” This is metaphorical for property as a valued commodity within the Industrial society, hence Kubla’s desire to syphon off “twice five miles of fertile ground” for himself. The metaphor is extended with the upheaval of earth like grain beneath the flail of a harvester. This represents the working class uprisings of the period against political corruption, a movement known as Chartism, inspired by social-critic Thomas Carlyle. However, this “ceaseless turmoil” could also be interpreted as Coleridge’s response to the scientific paradigms of his day. He personifies the Earth as a living, ‘breathing’ being that responds with violent upheaval to Kubla’s intrusion within the peaceful region. This reflects Coleridge’s criticism of science’s meddling need for explanation and the Enlightenment’s ceaseless pursuit of reason, even though, according to the Romantics, the universe is “measureless to man.” Consequently, ‘Kubla Khan’ has been moulded by Coleridge’s exasperation with the tireless adherence to economic and scientific mindsets in the new Industrial Age.
Finally, through supernatural elements and awe-inspiring imagery, ‘Kubla Khan’ reflects the philosophical paradigms of the Romantics in the 18th and 19th centuries. Coleridge’s use of idolising natural imagery conveys his awe of nature, in accordance with Romantic philosophy. This awe is communicated through exaggerated descriptions of large spaces, as in the “caverns measureless to man” and the “deep romantic chasm.” Furthermore, the underlying supernatural theme invokes a suspension of disbelief, as exemplified by the image of a “woman wailing for her demon-lover.” This contrasts with Enlightenment philosophy, which promoted only strict rational thinking, as demonstrated by the theories of philosopher Denis Diderot. The haphazard structure of the poem also radically opposes neoclassicism and conveys Rousseau’s ideas about literature as a form of emotional expression. These examples stress the ways in which ‘Kubla Khan’ has been shaped by the philosophical atmosphere of the Romantic Era. Furthermore, the poem represents Coleridge’s unconventional religious values compared with those of his society. During the 18th and 19th Centuries, Newton’s ideas about ‘rationalised’ religion were beginning to permeate the teachings of the church. ‘Kubla Khan’ opposes this by representing spirituality in a more mystical and idolatrous sense. Coleridge’s use of religious terms to describe natural landscapes, as in “the sacred river,” communicates his sense of spirituality derived from nature. This concept, as expedited by Emerson, is common to the work of the early Romantics. Additionally, his portrayal of idolatry and ritualistic behaviour, “weave a circle ‘round him thrice,” aligns strongly with Catholic practices as opposed to the Enlightenment’s brand of strictly-rational Newtonian Christianity. As such, ‘Kubla Khan’ has been powerfully influenced by the Romantic desire for an alternative spirituality grounded within nature.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s ability to communicate his revolutionary ideas through rich and expressive poetry is doubtlessly why he is considered to be an iconic Romantic artist. His poems ‘Frost at Midnight’ and ‘Kubla Khan’ are shaped by the economic, religious, philosophic and scientific paradigms of the 18th and 19th century as they capture the Romantic struggle against the principles of the Enlightenment. They effectively influence the imaginings of the reader through a sophisticated yet distinctive poetic style and communicate Coleridge’s personal values and opposition to the rationalised values of his industrial society. As such, Coleridge’s work should be appreciated as a testament to the beauty of passionate personal creation, as exemplified by a quote from Coleridge’s good friend and fellow Romantic artist William Wordsworth, “Fill your paper with the breathings of your heart.”